wine

Wine is an alcoholic
beverage, made of
fermented fruit juice,
usually from grapes.[1]
The natural chemical
balance of grapes lets
them ferment without
the addition of sugars,
acids, enzymes, or other
nutrients.[2] Grape wine
is produced by
fermenting crushed
grapes using various
types of yeast. Yeast
consumes the sugars in
the grapes and converts
them into alcohol.
Different varieties of
grapes and strains of
yeasts produce different
types of wine.
Wines made from other
fruits, such as apples and
berries, are normally
named after the fruit
from which they are
produced (for example,
apple wine or elderberry
wine) and are generically
called fruit wine or
country wine (not to be
confused with the French
term vin de pays).
Others, such as barley
wine and rice wine (i.e.,
sake), are made from
starch-based materials
and resemble beer and
spirit more than wine,
while ginger wine is
fortified with brandy. In
these cases, the term
"wine" refers to the
higher alcohol content
rather than production
process.[3] The
commercial use of the
English word "wine" (and
its equivalent in other
languages) is protected
by law in many
jurisdictions.[4]
Wine has a rich history
dating back to around
8000 BC and is thought to
have originated in areas
now within the borders
of Armenia, Georgia and
Iran.[5][6][7][8][9] Wine
first appeared in Europe
at about 4500 BC in the
Balkans, and was very
common in ancient
Greece, Thrace and
Rome. Wine has also
played an important role
in religion throughout
history. The Greek god
Dionysus and the Roman
equivalent Bacchus
represented wine, and
the drink is also used in
Christian Eucharist
ceremonies and the
Jewish Kiddush.
Etymology
The word "wine" comes
from the Proto-Germanic
"*winam," an early
borrowing from the Latin
vinum, "wine" or
"(grape) vine," itself
derived from the Proto-
Indo-European stem
*win-o- (cf. Hittite:
wiyana, Lycian: Oino,
Ancient Greek οῖνος -
oînos, Aeolic Greek
ϝοίνος - woinos).[10][11]
The earliest attested
terms referring to wine
are the Mycenaean
Greek me-tu-wo ne-wo
meaning "the month of
new wine" or "festival of
the new wine" and wo-
no-wa-ti-si meaning
"wine garden", written
in Linear B inscriptions.
[12][13][14][15]
As explained in the
History section below,
the earliest known
cultivation of the vitis
vinifera grapevine
occurred in present-day
Armenia and Georgia.[5]
Although no clear
evidence has been found
of any linguistic
connection, some
scholars have noted the
similarities between the
words for wine in the
Kartvelian (e.g. Georgian
ghvino) Semitic (*wayn)
and Indo-European
languages (e.g. Russian
vino), hinting to the
possibility that this word
diffused into all these
language families from a
common origin.[16] Some
Georgian scholars have
speculated that Georgian
was the origin of this
word and that it entered
into the Indo-European
languages via Semitic.
[17]
History
Main article: History of
wine
Archaeological evidence
suggests that the
earliest known
production of wine, made
by fermenting grapes,
took place in sites in
Georgia and Armenia
from as early as
8000-6000 BC.[6][7][8][9]
These locations are all
within the natural area
of the European
grapevine Vitis vinifera.
Pressing wine after the
harvest; Tacuinum
Sanitatis, 14th century
Through an extensive
gene-mapping project in
2006, Dr. McGovern and
his colleagues analyzed
the heritage of more
than 110 modern grape
cultivars, and narrowed
their origin to a region in
Georgia, where also wine
residues were discovered
on the inner surfaces of
8,000-year-old ceramic
storage jars in Shulavari,
Georgia.[18] In his book
Ancient Wine: The Search
for the Origins of
Viniculture (Princeton:
Princeton University
Press, 2003), McGovern
proposes modern-day
Georgia and Armenia as
the likely sites of the
domestication of the
Eurasian wine grape
some 8,000 years ago.
Winemaking spread
south from there, with
wines being produced in
northwestern Iran at
Hajji Firuz Tepe by 5400
B.C. A little more than
4,000 years later, Near
Eastern wine culture had
evolved to the point
where amphoras found in
the palace of Amenhotep
III in western Thebes
noted vintage, quality,
appellation, and even the
purpose or occasion for
the blend.[19] The oldest
known evidence of wine
production in Europe is
dated to 4500 BC and
comes from
archaeological sites in
Greece.[20][21] The same
sites also contain the
world's earliest evidence
of crushed grapes.[20] In
January 11, 2011 in one of
Armenia's Vayots Dzor
province cave was found
world ’s oldest winery
dating to approximately
6000 years ago.[5][6][22]
Literary references to
wine are abundant in
Homer (9th century BC,
but possibly composed
even earlier), Alkman
(7th century BC), and
others. In Ancient Egypt,
six of 36 wine amphoras
were found in the tomb
of King Tutankhamun
bearing the name
"Kha'y", a royal chief
vintner. Five of these
amphoras were
designated as from the
King's personal estate
with the sixth listed as
from the estate of the
royal house of Aten.[23]
Traces of wine have also
been found in central
Asian Xinjiang, dating
from the second and first
millennia BC.[24]
Viticulture in India has a
long history dating back
to the time of the Indus
Valley civilization when
grapevines were believed
to have been introduced
from Persia sometime in
the 5000 BC. The first
known mentioning of
grape-based wines was in
the late 4th century BC
writings of Chanakya
who was the chief
minister of Emperor
Chandragupta Maurya. In
his writings, Chanakya
condemns the use of
alcohol while chronicling
the emperor and his
court's frequent
indulgence of a style of
grape wine known as
Madhu.[25]
A 2003 report by
archaeologists indicates
a possibility that grapes
were mixed with rice to
produce mixed
fermented beverages in
China in the early years
of the seventh
millennium BC. Pottery
jars from the Neolithic
site of Jiahu, Henan
contained traces of
tartaric acid and other
organic compounds
commonly found in wine.
However, other fruits
indigenous to the region,
such as hawthorn, can
not be ruled out.[26][27]
If these beverages, which
seem to be the
precursors of rice wine,
included grapes rather
than other fruits, these
grapes were of any of
the several dozen
indigenous wild species
of grape in China, rather
than from Vitis vinifera,
which were introduced
into China some 6000
years later.[26]
One of the lasting
legacies of the ancient
Roman Empire was the
viticulture foundation
the Romans laid in the
lands that today are
world renowned wine
regions. Areas with
Roman garrison towns,
like Bordeaux, Trier, and
Colchester, the Romans
planted vineyards to
supply local needs and
limit the cost of long
distance trading.[28] In
medieval Europe, the
Roman Catholic Church
staunchly supported
wine, since they required
it for the Mass. Monks in
France made wine for
years, aging it in caves.
[29] An old English recipe
that survived in various
forms until the 19th
century calls for refining
white wine from bastard
— bad or tainted
bastardo wine.[30]
Grape varieties
Main article: List of
grape varieties
Grape vineyard
Wine is usually made
from one or more
varieties of the European
species Vitis vinifera,
such as Pinot Noir,
Chardonnay, Cabernet
Sauvignon, Gamay and
Merlot. When one of
these varieties is used as
the predominant grape
(usually defined by law as
a minimum of 75% or 85%
), the result is a varietal,
as opposed to a blended,
wine. Blended wines are
not necessarily
considered inferior to
varietal wines; some of
the world's most
expensive wines, from
regions like Bordeaux
and the Rhone Valley,
are blended from
different grape varieties
of the same vintage.
[citation needed]
Wine can also be made
from other species of
grape or from hybrids,
created by the genetic
crossing of two species.
Vitis labrusca (of which
the Concord grape is a
cultivar), Vitis aestivalis,
Vitis rupestris, Vitis
rotundifolia and Vitis
riparia are native North
American grapes usually
grown to eat fresh or for
grape juice, jam, or jelly,
but sometimes made into
wine.
Hybridization is different
than grafting. Most of
the world's vineyards are
planted with European V.
vinifera vines that have
been grafted onto North
American species
rootstock. This is
common practice
because North American
grape species are
resistant to phylloxera, a
root louse that
eventually kills the vine.
In the late 19th century,
most of Europe's
vineyards (only excluding
some of the driest
vineyards in Southern
Europe) were devastated
by the bug, leading to
massive vine deaths and
eventual replanting.
Grafting is done in every
wine-producing country
of the world except for
Argentina, the Canary
Islands and Chile—the
only countries not yet
exposed to the insect.
[31]
In the context of wine
production, terroir is a
concept that
encompasses the
varieties of grapes used,
elevation and shape of
the vineyard, type and
chemistry of soil, climate
and seasonal conditions,
and the local yeast
cultures. The range of
possibilities here can
result in great
differences between
wines, influencing the
fermentation, finishing,
and aging processes as
well. Many wineries use
growing and production
methods that preserve or
accentuate the aroma
and taste influences of
their unique terroir.[32]
However, flavor
differences are not
desirable for producers
of mass-market table
wine or other cheaper
wines, where consistency
is more important. Such
producers try to
minimize differences in
sources of grapes
through production
techniques such as
micro-oxygenation,
tannin filtration, cross-
flow filtration, thin film
evaporation, and
spinning cones.[33]
Classification
Wine grapes on a vine
Main article:
Classification of wine
Regulations govern the
classification and sale of
wine in many regions of
the world. European
wines tend to be
classified by region (e.g.
Bordeaux, Rioja and
Chianti), while non-
European wines are most
often classified by grape
(e.g. Pinot Noir and
Merlot). More and more,
however, market
recognition of particular
regions is leading to
their increased
prominence on non-
European wine labels.
Examples of non-
European recognized
locales include Napa
Valley in California,
Willamette Valley in
Oregon, Columbia Valley
in Washington, Barossa
Valley and Hunter Valley
in Australia, Central
Valley in Chile, Vale dos
Vinhedos in Brazil,
Hawke's Bay and
Marlborough in New
Zealand, Okanagan
Valley and Niagara
Peninsula in Canada.
Some blended wine
names are marketing
terms, and the use of
these names is governed
by trademark law rather
than by specific wine
laws. For example,
Meritage (sounds like
"heritage") is generally a
Bordeaux-style blend of
Cabernet Sauvignon and
Merlot, and may also
include Cabernet Franc,
Petit Verdot, and
Malbec. Commercial use
of the term "Meritage"
is allowed only via
licensing agreements
with an organization
called the "Meritage
Association".
European classifications
Moscato d'Asti, a DOCG
wine
France has various
appellation systems
based on the concept of
terroir, with
classifications ranging
from Vin de Table ("table
wine") at the bottom,
through Vin de Pays and
Appellation d'Origine Vin
Délimité de Qualité
Supérieure
(AOVDQS) up to
Appellation d'Origine
Contrôlée
(AOC) or similar,
depending on the region.
[34][35] Portugal has
something similar and, in
fact, pioneered this
technique in 1756 with a
royal charter that
created the
"Demarcated Douro
Region" and regulated
wine production and
trade.[36] Germany did
likewise in 2002, although
their system has not yet
achieved the authority of
those of the other
countries'.[37][38] Spain,
Greece and Italy have
classifications based on a
dual system of region of
origin and product
quality.[39]
Beyond Europe
New World wine—wines
from outside of the
traditional wine growing
regions of Europe tend to
be classified by grape
rather than by terroir or
region of origin, although
there have been non-
official attempts to
classify them by quality.
[40][41]
Vintages
Main article: Vintage
A "vintage wine" is one
made from grapes that
were all or mostly grown
in a particular year, and
labelled as such. Most
countries allow a vintage
wine to include a portion
that is not from the
labelled vintage.
Variations in a wine's
character from year to
year can include subtle
differences in color,
palate, nose, body and
development. High-
quality wines can
improve in flavor with
age if properly stored.[1]
Consequently, it is not
uncommon for wine
enthusiasts and traders
to save bottles of an
especially good vintage
wine for future
consumption.
In the United States, for
a wine to be vintage
dated and labeled with a
country of origin or
American Viticultural
Area
(AVA) (such as "Sonoma
Valley"), it must contain
at least 95% of its volume
from grapes harvested in
that year.[42] If a wine is
not labeled with a
country of origin or AVA
the percentage
requirement is lowered
to 85%.[42]
Vintage wines are
generally bottled in a
single batch so that each
bottle will have a similar
taste. Climate can have a
big impact on the
character of a wine to
the extent that different
vintages from the same
vineyard can vary
dramatically in flavor
and quality.[43] Thus,
vintage wines are
produced to be
individually
characteristic of the
vintage and to serve as
the flagship wines of the
producer. Superior
vintages, from reputable
producers and regions,
will often fetch much
higher prices than their
average vintages. Some
vintage wines, like
Brunellos, are only made
in better-than-average
years.
For consistency, non-
vintage wines can be
blended from more than
one vintage, which helps
wine makers sustain a
reliable market image
and maintain sales even
in bad years.[44][45] One
recent study suggests
that for normal drinkers,
vintage year may not be
as significant to
perceived wine quality as
currently thought,
although wine
connoisseurs continue to
place great importance
on it.[46]
Tasting
Main article: Wine
tasting
Judging color is the first
step in tasting a wine.
Wine tasting is the
sensory examination and
evaluation of wine.
Wines are made up of
chemical compounds
similar or identical to
those in fruits,
vegetables, and spices.
The sweetness of wine is
determined by the
amount of residual sugar
in the wine after
fermentation, relative to
the acidity present in the
wine. Dry wine, for
example, has only a small
amount of residual sugar.
Individual flavors may
also be detected, due to
the complex mix of
organic molecules such
as esters and terpenes
that grape juice and
wine can contain.
Experienced tasters can
distinguish between
flavors characteristic of
a specific grape and
flavors that result from
other factors in wine
making. Typical
intentional flavor
elements in wine are
those imparted by aging
in oak casks; chocolate,
vanilla, or coffee almost
always come from the
oak and not the grape
itself.[47]
Banana flavors (isoamyl
acetate) are the product
of yeast metabolism, as
are spoilage aromas such
as sweaty, barnyard,
band-aid ( 4-ethylphenol
and 4-ethylguaiacol),[48]
and rotten egg
(hydrogen sulfide).[49]
Some varietals can also
have a mineral flavor due
to the presence of
water-soluble salts (like
limestone).
Wine aroma comes from
volatile compounds in
the wine that are
released into the air.[50]
Vaporization of these
compounds can be sped
up by twirling the wine
glass or serving the wine
at room temperature.
For red wines that are
already highly aromatic,
like Chinon and
Beaujolais, many people
prefer them chilled.[51]
Collecting
Château Margaux, a First
Growth from the
Bordeaux region of
France, is highly
collectible.
Outstanding vintages
from the best vineyards
may sell for thousands of
dollars per bottle,
though the broader term
fine wine covers bottles
typically retailing at over
about US$30–50.[52]
"Investment wines" are
considered by some to be
Veblen goods—that is,
goods for which demand
increases instead of
decreases as its price
rises. The most common
wines purchased for
investment include those
from Bordeaux,
Burgundy, cult wines
from Europe and
elsewhere, and Vintage
port. Characteristics of
highly collectible wines
include:
1. A proven track
record of holding
well over time
2. A drinking window
plateau (i.e., the
period for maturity
and
approachability)
that is many years
long
3. A consensus
amongst experts
as to the quality of
the wines
4. Rigorous
production
methods at every
stage, including
grape selection
and appropriate
barrel-aging
Investment in fine wine
has attracted fraudsters
who prey on their
victims' ignorance of this
sector of the wine
market. Wine fraudsters
often work by charging
excessively high prices
for off-vintage or lower-
status wines from famous
wine regions, while
claiming that they are
offering a sound
investment unaffected by
economic cycles. Like any
investment, proper
research is essential
before investing.
Production
Main article:
Winemaking
Wine production by
country 2006[53]
Rank
Country
(with link to wine
article)
Production
(tonnes)
1
France
5,349,333
2
Italy
4,711,665
3
Spain
3,643,666
4
United States
2,232,000
5
Argentina
1,539,600
6
Australia
1,410,483
7
China (People's
Republic)
1,400,000
8
South Africa
1,012,980
9
Chile
977,087
10
Germany
891,600
Wine production by
country 2007[53]
Rank
Country
(with link to wine
article)
Production
(tonnes)
1
Italy
5,050,000
2
France
4,711,600
3
Spain
3,645,000
4
United States
2,300,000
5
Argentina
1,550,000
6
China (People's
Republic)
1,450,000
7
South Africa
1,050,000
8
Australia
961,972
9
Germany
891,600
10
Chile
827,746
Wine grapes grow almost
exclusively between
thirty and fifty degrees
north or south of the
equator. The world's
southernmost vineyards
are in the Central Otago
region of New Zealand's
South Island near the
45th parallel south,[54]
and the northernmost
are in Flen, Sweden, just
north of the 59th parallel
north.[55]
Exporting countries
Top ten wine exporting
countries in 2006[56]
Rank
Country
1000 tonnes
1
Italy*
1,793
2
France
1,462
3
Spain*
1,337
4
Australia
762
5
Chile*
472
6
United States
369
7
Germany
316
8
Argentina
302
9
Portugal
286
10
South Africa
272
World**
8,353
* Unofficial figure. **
May include official,
semi-official or
estimated data.
2006 export market
shares[56]
Rank
Country
Market share
(% of value in US$)
1
France
34.9%
2
Italy
18.0%
3
Australia
9.3%
4
Spain
8.7%
5
Chile
4.3%
6
United States
3.6%
7
Germany
3.5%
8
Portugal
3.0%
9
South Africa
2.4%
10
New Zealand
1.8%
The UK was the world's
biggest importer of wine
in 2007.[57]
Uses
Per capita annual wine
consumption:
less than 1 litre.
from 1 to 7 litres.
from 7 to 15 litres.
from 15 to 30 litres.
More than 30 litres.
Wine is a popular and
important beverage that
accompanies and
enhances a wide range of
European and
Mediterranean-style
cuisines, from the simple
and traditional to the
most sophisticated and
complex. Wine is
important in cuisine not
just for its value as a
beverage, but as a flavor
agent, primarily in stocks
and braising, since its
acidity lends balance to
rich savory or sweet
dishes. Red, white, and
sparkling wines are the
most popular, and are
known as light wines
because they are only
10 –14% alcohol-content
by volume. Apéritif and
dessert wines contain 14–
20% alcohol, and are
sometimes fortified to
make them richer and
sweeter.
Some wine labels suggest
opening the bottle and
letting the wine
"breathe" for a couple of
hours before serving,
while others recommend
drinking it immediately.
Decanting—the act of
pouring a wine into a
special container just for
breathing —is a
controversial subject in
wine. In addition to
aeration, decanting with
a filter allows one to
remove bitter sediments
that may have formed in
the wine. Sediment is
more common in older
bottles but younger
wines usually benefit
more from aeration.[58]
During aeration, the
exposure of younger
wines to air often
"relaxes" the flavors and
makes them taste
smoother and better
integrated in aroma,
texture, and flavor. Older
wines generally fade, or
lose their character and
flavor intensity, with
extended aeration.[59]
Despite these general
rules, breathing does not
necessarily benefit all
wines. Wine should be
tasted as soon as it is
opened to determine
how long it should be
aerated, if at all.
Religious uses
Silver kiddush cup and
wine decanter
Ancient religions
The use of wine in
religious ceremonies is
common to many
cultures and regions.
Libations often included
wine, and the religious
mysteries of Dionysus
used wine as a
sacramental entheogen
to induce a mind-altering
state.
Judaism
Wine is an integral part
of Jewish laws and
traditions. The Kiddush is
a blessing recited over
wine or grape juice to
sanctify the Shabbat or a
Jewish holiday. On Pesach
(Passover) during the
Seder, it is a Rabbinic
obligation of men and
women to drink four cups
of wine.[60] In the
Tabernacle and in the
Temple in Jerusalem, the
libation of wine was part
of the sacrificial service.
[61] Note that this does
not mean that wine is a
symbol of blood, a
common misconception
that contributes to the
myth of the blood libel.
The blessing over wine
said before consuming
the drink is: "Baruch
atah Hashem (Adonai)
Eloheinu melech ha-olam,
boray p ’ree
hagafen"—"Praised be
the Lord, our God, King
of the universe, Creator
of the fruit of vine."
Christianity
Jesus making wine from
water in The Marriage at
Cana, a 14th-century
fresco from the Visoki
Dečani monastery
The bishop elevates the
chalice while the deacon
fans the Gifts with the
ripidion.
All alcohol is strictly
forbidden under Islamic
law, but especially in
Persia, there has been a
long tradition of drinking
wine.
In Christianity, wine is
used in a sacred rite
called the Eucharist,
which originates in the
Gospel account of the
Last Supper (Gospel of
Luke 22:19) that describe
Jesus sharing bread and
wine with his disciples
and commanding them
to, "do this in
remembrance of me."
Beliefs about the nature
of the Eucharist vary
among denominations
(see Eucharistic
theologies contrasted
).
While most Christians
consider the use of wine
from the grape as
essential for validity of
the sacrament, many
Protestants also allow
(or require)
unfermented,
pasteurized grape juice
as a substitute. Wine was
used in Eucharistic rites
by all Protestant groups
until an alternative arose
in the late 19th century.
Methodist dentist and
prohibitionist Thomas
Bramwell Welch applied
new pasteurization
techniques to stop the
natural fermentation
process of grape juice.
Some Christians who
were part of the growing
temperance movement
pressed for a switch from
wine to grape juice, and
the substitution spread
quickly over much of the
United States and to
other countries to a
lesser degree.[62] There
remains an ongoing
debate between some
American Protestant
denominations as to
whether wine can and
should be used for the
Eucharist or allowed as
an ordinary beverage.
Islam
Alcohol is mostly
forbidden under most
interpretations of Islamic
law.[63] Iran and
Afghanistan used to have
a thriving wine industry
that disappeared after
the Islamic Revolution in
1979 and earlier in
Afghanistan. However,
people of Nuristan in
Afghanistan have
produced wine since
ancient times and still do
so.[64] In Greater Persia,
Mei (Persian wine) has
been a central theme of
poetry for more than a
thousand years.
Health effects
Alcohol and health
General
Alcohol detoxification
· Alcohol rehabilitation
· Binge drinking
· Blood alcohol content
· Driving under the
influence
· French Paradox
·
Recommended maximum
intake
· Teetotalism
· Wine and health
Conditions
digestive system
Alcoholic hepatitis
· Alcoholic liver cirrhosis
· Alcoholic liver disease
nervous system
Delirium tremens
· Alcohol dementia
· Alcoholic hallucinosis
· Blackout (alcohol-
related amnesia)
· Wernicke-Korsakoff
syndrome
cardiovascular system
Alcohol and
cardiovascular disease
· Alcoholic
cardiomyopathy
· Alcoholic lung disease
Disorders
Alcohol abuse
· Alcohol dependence
· Alcohol flush reaction
· Alcohol induced mood
disorders
· Alcohol intoxication
· Alcoholic psychoses
· Alcohol withdrawal
syndrome
· /Post–acute withdrawal
syndrome
(PAWS)
· Alcoholism (alcohol
addiction)
·
Fetal alcohol syndrome
(FAS)/Fetal alcohol
spectrum disorder
(FASD)
Interactions
Alcohol tolerance
· Alcohol myopia
· Aging
· Breast cancer
· Cancer
· Family systems
· Sex
· Sleep
· Weight
· Short-term effects of
alcohol
/Long-term effects of
alcohol
·
Sudden infant death
syndrome
(SIDS)
· Neonatal abstinence
syndrome
(NAS)
Movements
Alcoholics Anonymous
· Temperance movement
Red table wine
Nutritional value per 100
g (3.5 oz)
Energy
355 kJ (85 kcal)
Carbohydrates
2.6 g
Sugars
0.6 g
Fat
0.0 g
Protein
0.1 g
Alcohol
10.6 g
10.6 g alcohol is 13%vol.
100 g wine is
approximately 100 ml (3.4
fl oz.)
Sugar and alcohol
content can vary.
Source: USDA Nutrient
database
Although excessive
alcohol consumption has
adverse health effects,
epidemiological studies
have consistently
demonstrated that
moderate consumption
of alcohol and wine is
statistically associated
with a decrease in death
due to cardiovascular
events such as heart
failure[65] according to
additional news reports
on the French Paradox.
[66] The French paradox
refers to the
comparatively lower
incidence of coronary
heart disease in France
despite high levels of
saturated fat in the
traditional French diet.
Some epidemiologists
suspect that this
difference is due to the
higher consumption of
wines by the French, but
the scientific evidence
for this theory is limited.
The average moderate
wine drinker is more
likely to exercise more,
to be more health
conscious, and to be of a
higher educational and
socioeconomic class,
evidence that the
association between
moderate wine drinking
and health may be
related to confounding
factors.[65]
Population studies have
observed a J curve
association between
wine consumption and
the risk of heart disease.
This means that heavy
drinkers have an
elevated risk, while
moderate drinkers (at
most two five-ounce
servings of wine per day)
have a lower risk than
non-drinkers. Studies
have also found that
moderate consumption
of other alcoholic
beverages may be
cardioprotective,
although the association
is considerably stronger
for wine.[67] Also, some
studies have found
increased health benefits
for red wine over white
wine, though other
studies have found no
difference. Red wine
contains more
polyphenols than white
wine, and these are
thought to be
particularly protective
against cardiovascular
disease.[65]
A chemical in red wine
called resveratrol has
been shown to have both
cardioprotective and
chemoprotective effects
in animal studies.[68]
Low doses of resveratrol
in the diet of middle-
aged mice has a
widespread influence on
the genetic levers of
aging and may confer
special protection on the
heart. Specifically, low
doses of resveratrol
mimic the effects of
what is known as caloric
restriction - diets with
20–30 percent fewer
calories than a typical
diet.[69] Resveratrol is
produced naturally by
grape skins in response
to fungal infection,
including exposure to
yeast during
fermentation. As white
wine has minimal contact
with grape skins during
this process, it generally
contains lower levels of
the chemical.[70] Other
beneficial compounds in
wine include other
polyphenols,
antioxidants, and
flavonoids.[71]
To fully get the benefits
of resveratrol in wines, it
is recommended to sip
slowly when drinking
wines. Due to
inactivation in the gut
and liver, most of the
resveratrol in imbibed
red wine does not reach
the blood circulation.
However, when sipping
slowly, absorption via the
mucous membranes in
the mouth can result in
up to around 100 times
the blood levels of
resveratrol.[72]
Red wines from the south
of France and from
Sardinia in Italy have
been found to have the
highest levels of
procyanidins, which are
compounds in grape
seeds suspected to be
responsible for red
wine's heart benefits.
Red wines from these
areas have between two
and four times as much
procyanidins as other red
wines. Procyanidins
suppress the synthesis of
a peptide called
endothelin-1 that
constricts blood vessels.
[73]
A 2007 study found that
both red and white wines
are effective anti-
bacterial agents against
strains of Streptococcus.
[74] Also, a report in the
October 2008 issue of
Cancer Epidemiology,
Biomarkers and
Prevention, posits that
moderate consumption
of red wine may
decrease the risk of lung
cancer in men.[75]
While evidence from
laboratory and
epidemiological
(observational) studies
suggest a
cardioprotective effect,
no controlled studies
have been completed on
the effect of alcoholic
drinks on the risk of
developing heart disease
or stroke. Excessive
consumption of alcohol
can cause cirrhosis of the
liver and alcoholism;[76]
the American Heart
Association
cautions people to
"consult your doctor on
the benefits and risks of
consuming alcohol in
moderation."[77]
Wine's effect on the
brain is also under study.
One study concluded that
wine made from the
Cabernet Sauvignon
grape reduces the risk of
Alzheimer's Disease.[78]
[79] Another study
concluded that among
alcoholics, wine damages
the hippocampus to a
greater degree than
other alcoholic
beverages.[80]
Sulphites are present in
all wines and are formed
as a natural product of
the fermentation
process, and many wine
producers add sulfur
dioxide in order to help
preserve wine. Sulfur
dioxide is also added to
foods such as dried
apricots and orange
juice. The level of added
sulphites varies, and
some wines have been
marketed with low
sulphite content.[81]
Sulphites in wine can
cause some people,
particularly those with
asthma, to have adverse
reactions.
A study of women in the
United Kingdom, called
The Million Women
Study , concluded that
moderate alcohol
consumption can
increase the risk of
certain cancers,
including breast, pharynx
and liver cancer.[82] This
has led the lead author
of the study, Professor
Valerie Beral, to assert
that there is not enough
evidence to conclude
that any positive health
effects of red wine
outweigh the risk of
cancer, and is quoted as
saying, "It's an absolute
myth that red wine is
good for you." Professor
Roger Corder, author of
The Red Wine Diet,
counters that two small
glasses of a very tannic,
procyanadin rich wine
would confer a benefit,
although "most
supermarket wines are
low procyanadin and high
alcohol."[83]
Packaging
Assorted wine corks
Corrugated box to carry
bottles
Most wines are sold in
glass bottles and are
sealed using corks (50%
of production comes
from Portugal).[84] An
increasing number of
wine producers have
been using alternative
closures such as
screwcaps, or synthetic
plastic "corks". In
addition to being less
expensive, alternative
closures prevent cork
taint, although they have
been blamed for other
problems such as
excessive reduction.
[citation needed]
Some wines are
packaged in heavy
plastic bags within
cardboard boxes, and are
called box wines, or cask
wine. These wines are
typically accessed via a
tap on the side of the
box. Box wine can stay
acceptably fresh for up
to a month after
opening, while bottled
wine oxidizes more
rapidly and can degrade
considerably in a few
days.
Environmental
considerations of wine
packaging reveal
benefits and drawbacks
of both bottled and box
wines. Glass used to
make bottles has a
decent environmental
impact, as it is
completely recyclable,
whereas plastics as used
in box wines are typically
much less
environmentally friendly.
However, wine bottle
manufacturers have been
cited for Clean Air Act
violations. A New York
Times editorial
suggested that box wine,
being lighter in package
weight, has a reduced
carbon footprint from its
distribution. Boxed wine
plastics, even though
possibly recyclable, can
be more labor-intensive
(and therefore
expensive) to process
than glass bottles. And,
while a wine box is
recyclable, its plastic
wine bladder most likely
is not.[85]
Storage
Main article: Storage of
wine
Wine cellars, or wine
rooms if they are above-
ground, are places
designed specifically for
the storage and aging of
wine. In an active wine
cellar, temperature and
humidity are maintained
by a climate control
system. Passive wine
cellars are not climate-
controlled, and so must
be carefully located.
Wine is a natural,
perishable food product;
when exposed to heat,
light, vibration or
fluctuations in
temperature and
humidity, all types of
wine, including red,
white, sparkling, and
fortified, can spoil. When
properly stored, wines
can maintain their
quality and in some cases
improve in aroma, flavor,
and complexity as they
age. Some wine experts
contend that the optimal
temperature for aging
wine is 55 °F (13 °C),[86]
others 59 °F (15 °C).[87]
Wine refrigerators offer
an alternative to wine
cellars. They are
available in capacities
ranging from small 16-
bottle units to furniture
pieces that can contain
400 bottles. Wine
refrigerators are not
ideal for aging, but
rather serve to chill wine
to the perfect
temperature for
drinking. These
refrigerators keep the
humidity low, usually
under 50%, which is
below the optimal
humidity of 50% to 70%.
Lower humidity levels
can dry corks out over
time, allowing oxygen to
enter the bottle and
reduce the wine's
quality.[88]
Oak wine barrels
Related professions
Name
Description
Cooper
Craftsman of wooden
barrels and casks. A
cooperage is a company
that produces such
casks.
Garagiste
An amateur wine maker,
or a derogatory term
used for small scale
operations of recent
inception, usually
without pedigree and
located in Bordeaux
Négociant
A wine merchant, most
specifically those who
assemble the produce of
smaller growers and
winemakers and sells
them under their own
name
Oenologist
Wine scientist or wine
chemist; a student of
oenology. A winemaker
may be trained as
oenologist, but often
hires a consultant
instead
Sommelier
A restaurant specialist in
charge of assembling the
wine list, educating the
staff about wine, and
assisting customers with
their wine selections
Terroir specialist
Someone (often a
consultant or academic)
with special knowledge
of the interplay between
the environmental
factors such as soil,
climate and topography
— also known as terroir
—and wine grape quality
or wine character
Vintner, Winemaker
A wine producer; a
person who makes wine
Viticulturist
A person who specializes
in the science of
grapevines —can also be
someone who manages
vineyard pruning,
irrigation, and pest
control
See also
Main article: Outline of
wine
Acids in wine
Aging of wine
Beverage
Cork
Fruit wine
Glossary of wine terms
Non-grape based wine
Oak (wine)
Screw cap (wine)
Spritzer
Wine accessory
Wine clubs
Wine Country
Winemaking
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Nacional da
Cortiça, Portugal.
"The cork industry
in Portugal"
85. ^ Muzaurieta,
Annie Bell,
thedailygreen.com
(2008-10-01). Holy
Hangover! Wine
Bottles Cause Air
Pollution
86. ^ fineliving.com
Storing Wine
87. ^
maridajesgourmet.
com Storing Wine
Temperature
88. ^ "Wine Fridges
and Wine
Cabinets"
.
Further reading
Foulkes, Christopher
(2001). Larousse
Encyclopedia of Wine.
Larousse. ISBN
2-03-585013-4.
Johnson, Hugh (2003).
Hugh Johnson's Wine
Companion (5th ed.).
Mitchell Beazley. ISBN
978-1840007046.
McCarthy, Ed; Mary
Ewing-Mulligan, Piero
Antinori (2006). Wine
for Dummies.
HarperCollins. ISBN
0-470-04579-5.
MacNeil, Karen (2001).
The Wine Bible.
Workman. ISBN
1-56305-434-5.
Oldman, Mark (2004).
Oldman's Guide to
Outsmarting Wine.
Penguin. ISBN
978-0142004920.
Parker, Robert (2008).
Parker's Wine Buyer's
Guide. Simon and
Schuster. ISBN
978-0743271981.
Pigott, Stuart (2004).
Planet Wine: A Grape
by Grape Visual Guide
to the Contemporary
Wine World. Mitchell
Beazley. ISBN
978-1840007763.
Robinson, Jancis (2006).
The Oxford Companion
to Wine (3rd ed.).
Oxford: OUP. ISBN
0-19-860990-6.
Zraly, Kevin (2006).
Windows on the World
Complete Wine
Course. Sterling. ISBN
1-4027-3928-1.
External links
The Guardian &
Observer Guide to
Wine
The wine anorak by
wine writer Jamie
Goode
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Alcoholic hepatitis [18]
Alcoholic hepatitis [18]
· [13]
· [13]
Acids in wine [14]
Acids in wine [14]
Acids in wine [29]
Acids in wine [29]
Chardonnay [12]
Chardonnay [12]
Agh Shani [55]
Agh Shani [55]
Australia [64]
Australia [64]
Algeria [53]
Algeria [53]
Alcoholic beverages [19]
Alcoho